Content Warning: Ibn Khaldun describes people of Slavic and Sub-Saharan African descent in offensive stereotypes that he purports to be scientific.

Ibn Khaldun distinguishes between a “surface” meaning of history and its “inner” meaning. The former entertains “changing conditions” and the spread and fall of dynasties; the latter is a deep philosophical endeavor that seeks “the causes and origins of existing things, and deep knowledge of the how and why of events” (5, emphasis added). In other words, philosophical historiography seeks the causes of historical change.

Ibn Khaldun defines two types of civilization: the Bedouin living in poor regions such as the desert and sedentary urban civilization. Geography, sociology, and human nature—particularly the power of family ties—mean that only those Bedouin flourish who have “group feeling,” a solidarity in which they see themselves as a single clan and sacrifice for one another. Ibn Khaldun sees this as necessary, since “aggressive and defensive strength is obtained only through group feeling” (123). He sees the world as highly competitive and violent, so such strength is necessary. The leader of such a group needs to prove himself in the harsh environment in which they live. Typically, this group comes from a sense of blood kinship, but God can raise a prophet who similarly unites people with true religion.