"The Epic of Gilgamesh" is the oldest existing myth in the world. It tells of the historical king Gilgamesh who reigned over Mesopotamia (in what is now Iraq) around 2750 BCE. The author of the poem is unknown, for "The Epic of Gilgamesh" is sourced from multiple fragments that have been excavated since the 19th century. The earliest versions of the epic are written in Sumerian and date to about 2100 BCE. The current translation is based on the Old Babylonian version, written in Akkadian on 11 clay tablets. These tablets were discovered in the 19th century among the ancient ruins of the city Nineveh by a British traveler; the first modern translation was published in 1876.

The hero of the poem, Gilgamesh, evaluates his courage and strength alongside his male companion Enkidu, who was born and raised in the wild. After various exploits together, Enkidu dies. Facing the reality of his own mortality, Gilgamesh sets off on a journey to find the only living immortal man who can tell Gilgamesh how to escape death.

Poet Biography

The original author of "The Epic of Gilgamesh" is anonymous, as the myth was likely orally circulated and translated by many for centuries. Five surviving Sumerian poems give early accounts of Gilgamesh’s exploits. Later, during Babylonian times, the stories were connected in the standard Akkadian version of "The Epic of Gilgamesh" (used for this analysis). In the text, the scribe of the Akkadian version names himself Sîn-lēqi-unninni, which was unusual for the time. This scribe would have lived in ancient Mesopotamia and may have been a priest, healer, and scholar from Uruk. Scholars believe he would have written or transcribed the epic sometime between 1300-1000 BCE.

Poem Text

Mitchell, Stephen, translator. “Gilgamesh: A New English Version.” 2004. The Free Press.

Summary

In Mitchell’s translation and retelling of "The Epic of Gilgamesh", the poem is divided into 11 books, beginning with a Prologue that briefly describes the ancient city of Uruk and Gilgamesh’s journey.

In Book 1, the hero Gilgamesh is introduced as a powerful ruler, the “protector of the people, raging flood that destroys all defenses” (Line 71). Gilgamesh is two-thirds divine and has accomplished great feats; however, he has become a tyrant. His people pray to the gods for mercy. Hearing these prayers, the gods create Enkidu: a counterbalance and double to Gilgamesh, “his second self” (Line 74) equal in strength, courage, and spirit.

Enkidu lives as a wild man among the animals until a trapper discovers him. When Gilgamesh hears of Enkidu’s plight, he sends the priestess Shamhat to tame him with her sexual “love-arts” (Line 77), so the animals will “be bewildered, and will leave him forever” (Line 78). Shamhat successfully seduces Enkidu, and he is forever changed, feeling his mind has been enlarged and he experiences a desire for friendship.

In Book 2, Enkidu becomes more human, chasing off animals and cleaning up his hair and clothing. He is affronted when he hears of Gilgamesh’s power, and goes to Uruk to challenge the king as “the mightiest” (Line 87) in the kingdom. When Gilgamesh exercises his right to take the virginity of a new bride in his kingdom, Enkidu challenges him and they wrestle. Gilgamesh wins and the men embrace, becoming “true friends” (Line 90).

In Book 3, Enkidu and Gilgamesh travel to the Cedar Forest to kill a monster named Humbaba. Gilgamesh is convinced this journey will make him legendary. Enkidu is terrified but ultimately agrees to accompany him. Before leaving, they visit Gilgamesh’s mother—the goddess Ninsun—for a blessing. She prays for their safety and adopts Enkidu as her own son. The kingdom’s elders send them to the Cedar Forest with their blessings.

Book 4 features the journey of Gilgamesh and Enkidu to the Cedar Forest. Each night, Gilgamesh has terrifying and prophetic dreams, each of which Enkidu interprets as Gilgamesh winning the battle against Humbaba. After five nights of travel, they finally arrive at the Cedar Forest where they can hear Humbaba’s “terrifying roar” (Line 116); they freeze in terror. A voice from heaven encourages them to quickly attack.

In Book 5, the pair enter the forest to confront Humbaba. Gilgamesh convinces Enkidu to continue, reminding him they are stronger together. At the monster’s den, Enkidu reminds Gilgamesh of his own words, “Two boats lashed together will never sink” (Line 122), and they advance as one. They attack the monster and with help from the sky god Shamash, they defeat Humbaba, who begs for mercy and offers them the Cedar Forest. Gilgamesh hesitates, but Enkidu dissuades him. In turn, Humbaba curses Enkidu to die a painful death, so Gilgamesh will be inconsolable and “crushed with grief” (Line 127). Gilgamesh cuts off Humbaba’s head. They return to Uruk by river with trees from the Cedar Forest.

Upon return to Uruk in Book 6, the goddess Ishtar sees Gilgamesh bathing and “her heart was smitten, her loins caught fire” (Line 130). She tries to seduce him, but he rejects her. Ishtar, insulted, runs to her father, who gives her the Bull of Heaven to use as revenge. The Bull is brought down to Earth and wreaks havoc on the land, but Enkidu and Gilgamesh defeat it together. Ishtar is again outraged, but Enkidu laughs and gloats while Gilgamesh places the Bull’s horns in his father’s chapel. The city celebrates the victory, but that night Enkidu has a nightmare that the gods are assembled.

In Book 7, Enkidu begins dying. He dreams that the gods are offended with the pair and have decided he must die. He falls sick and dreams of a winged lion that attacks and drags him to an underworld populated by fallen kings. Gilgamesh tries to console him, but Enkidu knows his illness is uncurable. Enkidu curses the trapper who found him as a wild man and Shamhat—the priestess who first seduced him—but the god Shamash calms him and Enkidu retracts his curses. He suffers for 12 days and dies despite Gilgamesh pleading for him to stay.

Book 8 tells of Gilgamesh’s grief as he remembers his friend and the adventures they shared. He has a statue crafted in Enkidu’s memory and makes a large offering to the gods of the underworld, with gifts for individual gods in hope they will welcome his friend and “walk at his side in the underworld” (Line 158). After the funeral, Gilgamesh goes like a wild man into the wilderness.

In Book 9, Gilgamesh mourns Enkidu and is distraught about his own mortality. Seeking immortality, he wanders through the wilderness in search of Utnapishtim—a man to whom the gods granted immortality. At the Twin Peaks, Gilgamesh encounters two scorpion people, a man and woman, who guard a tunnel. The sun plunges into this tunnel each night, “and moves through the earth to emerge above the horizon at dawn” (Line 160). The scorpion woman sees Gilgamesh is driven by despair, so they allow him to pass, advising him to run, as he only has 12 hours before the sun sets again. Gilgamesh begins at sunrise and runs through the darkness for 12 hours, barely escaping the tunnel as the sun “was hurtling towards the entrance” (Line 164). He finds himself in the “garden of the gods” (Line 164).

In Book 10, Gilgamesh must cross an ocean to find the immortal man. He encounters the tavern keeper Shiduri, who advises Giglamesh to enjoy his life rather than seek immortality. He refuses her advice and she eventually directs him to the boatman Urshanabi and his Stone Men. Gilgamesh kills the Stone Men before realizing he needs them to cross the “Waters of Death” (Line 170), but Urshanabi advises him to cut down 300 disposable punting poles, and they are able to traverse the dangerous waters. Utnapishtim greets them on the other side, where Gilgamesh shares his grief. Utnapishtim advises him to focus on his good fortune.

In Book 11, Gilgamesh asks how Utnapishtim gained immortality. Utnapishtim tells of when the gods sent a great flood during his time as a king of the city Shuruppak. In his story, five gods secretly decided to send the flood, but the clever god Ea whispered this secret to a reed fence, and Utnapishtim overheard him. He built a ship and collected “examples of every living creature” (Line 181) along with his riches and kinfolk. The storm came and they sealed the ship as waters rise. Even the gods were terrified, lamenting the destruction of the humans. When the rains stopped, the ship ran aground on Mount Nimush, and Utnapishtim successively sent a dove and a swallow that both flew off and returned to the ship. He sent a raven, which found a branch and did not return. When the waters dried, he freed the animals and made sacrifices to the gods. The goddess Aruru promised never to forget the flood, while the god Enlil granted immortality to Utnapishtim and his wife.

Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh if he can stay awake for seven days, the gods may grant him immortality. Gilgamesh agrees to the test, but quickly falls asleep, and Utnapishtim’s wife bakes seven loaves of bread, one each day he sleeps. Gilgamesh is awoken and claims “I was almost falling asleep when I felt your touch” (Line 193), but Utnapishtim shows him the breads as proof of his failure to stay awake. Gilgamesh is distraught but accepts he must leave. Utnapishtim’s wife insists Gilgamesh be given something for his journey, so Utnapishtim advises him to dive deep in the ocean and find a plant that is “the antidote to the fear of death” (Line 196) and returns a man to his youth. Gilgamesh obtains the plant, but during his travels with Urshanabi, a snake steals it from him. Gilgamesh weeps at the loss but the journey home continues, ending when Gilgamesh arrives home to Uruk.