Meditations is a collection of prose philosophical reflections and exercises composed in Koine Greek by Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who lived from 121-180 and ruled from 161-180. Though the precise dating of his compositions is unknown and they are not believed to be presented in chronological order, at least some of the books were written while he was on military campaign in the north of Europe during his reign. Scholars are generally in consensus that Marcus wrote to and for himself as he struggled to live by the Stoic principles that all are one and governed by Providence, that happiness is within human control, and that true worth lies in living a virtuous life and benefitting others. The title Meditations was a later appellation. During the tenth century, it was called ta eis heauton, meaning ‘things to himself’ in Greek.

This study guide refers to the 2006 Penguin Classics edition translated by Martin Hammond. Meditations is divided into twelve books, which are subdivided by what are conventionally called chapters, though they may be no longer than a sentence or sentence fragment.

Summary

In Book 1, Marcus describes the virtues he has learned and gifts he has received from seventeen pivotal figures in his life, from family members and teachers to the gods. Marcus credits the gods for surrounding him with virtuous family and friends and for preventing him from making grievous mistakes.

Book 2 was written during a military campaign and incorporates themes that Marcus returns to across his Meditations. He reflects that he is composed of body, spirit, and mind, with the mind and its capacity for reason being the only element of lasting importance. He writes that all people are part of the same divine Whole, which governs the world and works for the benefit of all. He cannot be harmed by others’ bad actions and he should not harm others because this would be harmful to his own soul. Similarly, he should not fear death because it is inevitable and nothing that is determined by the gods should be resented.

Book 3 contemplates the transience of life and the importance of living virtuously. Humans should develop their capacity for reason, safeguard their integrity, and maintain good will towards others. By submitting everything to rigorous examination through reason, humans can derive a deep understanding of the true nature of things. It is futile to fight what is inevitable or to worry about what others think since one cannot control such things—what matters most is that one lives virtuously.

Book 4 is about the importance of the inner life. Marcus writes that if he focuses on others’ behavior or the desire for praise, he will be distracted from the pursuit of virtue. Nothing outside of himself can define his true nature or cause him anxiety. Nature’s mysteries, chief among them death, cannot be understood by humans. Rather than fear the unknown, he should attend urgently to remaining on the path of virtue, allowing his reason to guide him. Invoking Heraclitus, he reminds himself that all matter is one interconnected and harmonious whole.

Book 5 follows similar threads as Book 3, with Marcus elaborating on the need to accept life as it is and to give kindness because it is correct to do so, not because he expects to receive anything in return.

The implications of being part of an interconnected whole preoccupies Marcus in Books Six and Seven. He reflects on how to react and respond to others’ objectionable behavior, while reminding himself to turn to philosophy to correct his own failings. Change is inevitable; thus, it is unnecessary to become overly invested in the things of this world or to fear death. Everything that is, was, and will be is part of the Whole.

Book 8 is concerned with the life of virtue. Virtue means living in harmony with nature and controlling one’s impulses and behaviors. Reflecting upon renowned emperors and philosophers, Marcus cautions himself that the former were enslaved by their ambition while the latter gave themselves over to their capacity for reason. He must guard his soul by ensuring that everything he does benefits others and by avoiding any obstacle in his pursuit of justice, restraint, and reason.

Marcus discusses five sins in Book 9: injustice; lying; pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain; fearing pain; and caring about pain, pleasure, death, fame, and obscurity. Pain, pleasure, death, fame, and obscurity are morally neutral and governed by Providence. What matters is how one thinks about them and the value (or false value) one ascribes to them. Thoughts in and of themselves are neither good nor bad, but actions are. Thus, Marcus notes he should ensure that his thoughts lead to proper actions. To reconcile himself with death, Marcus considers death a release from what contaminates his soul. To avoid sinful behavior, he should focus on what is within his control.

In Book 10, Marcus reminds himself that he is part of the Whole that works to benefit all of its parts. To complain or resent anything within the Whole would be to revolt against it. He urges himself to maintain control over his thoughts, with his mind directed by the gods. He believes that remembering the inevitability of change and death provides perspective for living a virtuous life, with sensitivity towards others, until death.

In Book 11, Marcus reflects on what a rational soul should concern itself with: being in control of itself, fulfilling its purpose of living virtuously, and remembering that it is part of the Whole. Marcus enumerates ten ways to move himself away from resentment of others and closer to virtue, drawing upon his familiar techniques from across Meditations. The final book of Meditations concerns death. Marcus prays to meet it with calm, kindness, and peace, without resentment. Marcus reiterates his belief in the gods: He has seen neither his soul nor the gods, but he has felt the power of both and believes in both.