Written in 1816-1817 by the British poet Lord George Gordon Byron, Manfred is a closet drama, meaning that Byron never intended it to be produced onstage despite writing it in the style of a play in verse, with dialogue parts for various characters. The work centers on the guilt of the eponymous Manfred over his tragically flawed romantic relationship with a woman named Astarte. Many critics believe that Manfred and Astarte’s relationship is implied to have been incestuous, because Byron himself was shunned by London society after accusations that he had an incestuous relationship with his half sister, Augusta Maria Leigh, and especially because Manfred was written immediately after Byron left England forever due to these rumors, insurmountable debt, and a scandalous divorce. Whether or not Manfred has this autobiographical level of meaning, it has been recognized for exemplifying key themes of the Romantic literary movement, and for the dark and tortured protagonist Manfred. Manfred has been adapted several times as a musical work, including a piece by Robert Schuman (Manfred: Dramatic Poem with Music in Three Parts, 1852), and another by Pyotr Tchaikovsky (Manfred Symphony, Op. 58, 1885).

Lord Byron, as the author is commonly known, continues to be recognized as one of the most significant and influential British poets of the 19th century, and is best known for the narrative poem Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (1812), the satirical epic poem Don Juan (1819), and his origination of the Byronic hero, a variation of the Romantic hero literary character type. This guide references the 2015 Cambridge Scholars Publishing edition of Manfred.

Plot Summary

Manfred is a lord living in a castle in the Alps. He is brooding and reclusive, convinced that he has committed some sort of sin connected to his beloved Astarte, who is now deceased, and seeks to erase his memory of the crime. Manfred uses magical powers he has developed to summon seven spirits. He asks for the power to forget because he is wracked with guilt. The spirits tell him that it is beyond them to grant the power of forgetting, and that the only way they know for him to erase his guilt is to die.

Manfred sends the spirits away, dissatisfied with their answer. In despair, he goes walking in the Alps and decides to kill himself by leaping from a cliff. A chamois hunter sees Manfred acting strangely and rescues him at the last second. Out of hospitality, the Chamois Hunter offers Manfred some wine, which sets Manfred into a delirium in which he explains that his guilt is connected to blood than ran between him and Astarte. Manfred proclaims that he must bear punishment for his crime. The chamois hunter tries to convince Manfred to seek salvation, but Manfred leaves for home.

Manfred then summons a powerful sorceress known as the Witch of Alps, and asks her to resurrect Astarte. She offers to evoke Astarte’s spirit in exchange for Manfred’s eternal obedience to her, but Manfred refuses. Manfred then calls on the great spirit Arimanes. Arimanes’s attendants, the Destinies, appear first, and mock humans like Manfred. When Arimanes appears, Manfred refuses to bow to him, shocking the Destinies. Arimanes conjures the spirit of Astarte, who at first is silent. When Astarte finally speaks, she states that Manfred’s death is inevitable.

Distraught, Manfred is visited by the Abbot of St. Maurice. The abbot knows that Manfred has been associating with demonic spirits. He offers to help lead Manfred to salvation, but Manfred refuses, feeling he is too far gone and consumed by his guilt. The Abbot is surprised and disturbed by the depth of Manfred’s gloom, but leaves. Later that night, Manfred’s servants observe the tower that Manfred has shut himself in. The Abbot reappears, demanding to see Manfred again. In the tower, the Abbot watches as Manfred invokes another demon to escort him to his death. Manfred dies, and the play closes as the Abbot wonders where Manfred’s soul has gone.