Fragmentation, power struggles, and the rise of new forces marked the political landscape of the Islamic world from the eighth to the 11th century. Initially, the Muslim world, under the Abbasid caliphate, enjoyed a central position in global civilization. However, divisions soon emerged. The Umayyad dynasty established an independent state in Andalusian Spain, leading to the first significant schism within the Islamic community. The Fatimids, a Shi’ite group, further deepened this division when they seized control of Egypt, proclaiming Cairo as their capital and challenging the authority of the Abbasids in Baghdad.

The weakening of centralized power in the Abbasid caliphate led to the rise of new groups. Mamluks, elite enslaved soldiers, became influential in the political dynamics, often overpowering their enslavers and establishing their own dynasties. The incursion of Turkish tribes compounded the fragmentation of power; they adopted Islam and asserted themselves militarily and politically within the region. Notably, the Seljuk Turks expanded their territory, with leaders like Alp Arslan and his son Malik Shah extending their control over vast areas, including Syria and the Holy Lands.

The Seljuks fostered a synthesis of Turkish military might, Arab religious doctrine, and Persian cultural and administrative sophistication. However, internal strife and the emergence of radical groups like the Assassins, founded by Hassan Sabbah, threatened the delicate balance they maintained.